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Elisabeth Jean Wood

Cuando una organización armada comete frecuentes violaciones, a menudo se considera que se trata de una estrategia de guerra. Pero en algunos casos, las violaciones asociadas a un conflicto se podrían interpretar mejor como una práctica, es decir, un tipo de violencia que no ha sido adoptado explícitamente como política por la organización, pero que es tolerada por los comandantes. En este artículo, la tipología de la violación relacionada con el conflicto examina no solo las relaciones verticales entre los comandantes (principales) y combatientes (agentes), sino también las interacciones sociales horizontales entre los combatientes. Analiza en qué casos es probable que la violación sea una práctica prevalente, enfocándose no solo en las normas y creencias de género de los combatientes, sino también en la forma en que estas son transformadas por los procesos sociales de las organizaciones. Como conclusión, sugiero que esta tipología es relevante para el análisis de todas las formas de violencia política, y también para los fiscales, defensores de derechos y los encargados de diseñar políticas sobre violaciones relacionadas con el conflicto.

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Wood, E. J. (2019). La violación como práctica de guerra: hacia una tipología de la violencia política. Estudios Socio-Jurídicos, 22(1), 67-109. https://doi.org/10.12804/revistas.urosario.edu.co/sociojuridicos/a.8189

Elisabeth Jean Wood, Yale University

Profesora de Ciencias Políticas, Estudios Internacionales y Regionales de Yale University. Sus intereses investigativos incluyen: la violencia política, la acción colectiva y metodologías cualitativas.

Seymour M. Hersh, My Lai 4: A Report on the Massacre and Its Aftermath (New York: Random House, 1970); Michael Bilton and Kevin Sim, Four Hours in My Lai (New York: Penguin, 1992); James Olson and Randy Roberts, My Lai: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1998).

William R. Peers, The My Lai Inquiry (New York: Norton, 1979).

Nick Turse, Kill Anything That Moves: The Real American War in Vietnam (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2013), 14–15, 163–71; Gina Weaver, Ideologies of Forgetting: Rape in the Vietnam War (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010), 54–57.

Amelia Hoover Green, “The Commander’s Dilemma: Creating and Controlling Armed Group Violence,” Journal of Peace Research 53, no. 5 (2016).

Sophie Richardot, “‘You Know What to Do with Them’: The Formulation of Orders and Engagement in War Crimes,” Aggression & Violent Behavior 19 (2014): 87. Ver también Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York: Ballantine Books, 1975); Weaver, Ideologies of Forgetting; Turse, Kill Anything That Moves.

Inger Skjelsbaek, “The Elephant in the Room: An Overview of How Sexual Violence Came to Be Seen as a Weapon of War,” in Report to the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Oslo: Peace Research Institute, 2010); Mala Htun and Weldon S. Laurel, “The Civic Origins of Progressive Policy Change: Combating Violence against Women in Global Perspective, 1975–2005,” American Political Science Review 106 (2012).

Xabier Agirre Aranburu, “Sexual Violence beyond Reasonable Doubt: Using Pattern Evidence and Analysis for International Cases,” Law & Social Inquiry 35, no. 4 (2010); Jelke Boesten, “Analyzing Rape Regimes at the Interface of War and Peace in Peru,” International Journal of Transitional Justice 4, no. 1 (2010); Maria Eriksson Baaz y Maria Stern, “Why Do Soldiers Rape? Masculinity, Violence, and Sexuality in the Armed Forces in the Congo (DRC),” International Studies Quarterly 53, no. 2 (2009); Maria

Eriksson Baaz y Maria Stern, Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War? Perceptions, Prescription, Problems in the Congo and Beyond (London: Zed Books, 2013); Paul Kirby, “How Is Rape a Weapon of War? Feminist International Relations, Modes of Critical Explanation and the Study of Wartime Sexual Violence,” European Journal of International Relations 19, no. 4 (2013); Elisabeth Jean Wood, “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence: When Is Wartime Rape Rare?,” Politics & Society 37, no. 1 (2009); Elisabeth Jean Wood, “Rape during War Is Not Inevitable: Variation in Wartime Sexual Violence,” en Morten Bergsmo, Alf Butenschøn Skre, y Elisabeth Jean Wood, eds., Understanding and Proving International Sex Crimes (Oslo: Torkel Opsahl Academic Epublisher, 2012).

Utilizo la definición de la Corte Penal Internacional (ICC) como la invasión del “cuerpo de una persona mediante una conducta que haya ocasionado la penetración, por insignificante que fuera, de cualquier parte del cuerpo de la víctima o del autor con un órgano sexual o del orificio anal o vaginal de la víctima con un objeto u otra parte del cuerpo... Que la invasión haya tenido lugar por la fuerza, o mediante la amenaza de la fuerza o mediante coacción, como la causada por el temor a la violencia, la intimidación, la detención, la opresión sicológica o el abuso de poder, contra esa u otra persona o aprovechando un entorno de coacción, o se haya realizado contra una persona incapaz de dar su libre consentimiento”. ICC, “Elements of Crimes,” Document No. ICC-PIDS-LT-03-002/11_Eng (The Hague: ICC, 2011), Article

(2) (b) (xxii)–1; en línea en http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/336923D8-A6AD-40ECAD7B-45BF9DE73D56/0/ElementsOfCrimesEng.pdf.

Esta definición se basa en la de la ICC, pero incluye la mutilación sexual y la tortura sexual como “formas comparablemente graves de violencia sexual”. Ver Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, July 17, 1998 (vigente a partir del 1 de julio de 2002), UN Doc. A/CONF.183/9, Art. 7(1) (g). Ver también Articles 8 (2) (b) (xxii) and 8(2)(e)(vi).

Dara Kay Cohen y Ragnild Nordås, “Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict: Introducing the SVAC Dataset, 1989–2009,” Journal of Peace Research 51, no. 3 (2014): 423, 425, figura 1; específicamente sobre la violación, ver Elisabeth Jean Wood, “Variation in Sexual Violence during War,” Politics & Society 34, no. 3 (2006); Dara Kay Cohen, “Explaining Rape during Civil War: Cross-National Evidence (1980–2009),” American Political Science Review 107, no. 3 (2013); Dara Kay Cohen, Rape during Civil War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016).

Wood, “Variation in Sexual Violence during War.”

Dustin A. Lewis, “Unrecognized Victims: Sexual Violence against Men in Conflict Settings under International Law,” Winsconsin International Law Journal 27, no. 1 (2009); Sandesh Sivakumaran, “Sexual Violence against Men in Armed Conflict,” European Journal of International Law 18, no. 2 (2007); Dara Kay Cohen, Amelia Hoover Green, y Elisabeth Jean Wood, “Wartime Sexual Violence: Misconceptions, Implications, and Ways Forward,” Special Report (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2013).

Wood, “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence.”

Elisabeth Jean Wood, “Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and the Policy Implications of Recent Research,” International Review of the Red Cross 96 (2015): 460.

Mi definición de “práctica” es más restringida que la utilizada por los investigadores que han tomado el “giro” de práctica en las relaciones internacionales. Ver Emanuel Adler y Vincent Pouliot, “International Practices,” International Theory 3, no. 1 (2011). En particular, la utilización adoptada por Laura Sjoberg en su importante libro, Women as Wartime Rapists: Beyond Sensation and Stereotyping (New York: NYU Press, 2016), es que toda violencia sexual durante la guerra y los conflictos es “una práctica social basada en género, que es física, íntima y repetida” (156). Ver mi reseña de su libro, próximamente en Perspectives on Politics.

Para mayor discusión, ver Elisabeth Jean Wood y Nathaniel Toppelberg, “The Persistence of Sexual Assault within the U.S. Military,” Journal of Peace Research 54, no. 5 (2017).

Andrew R. Morral, Kristie L. Gore, y Terry L. Schell, eds., Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment in the U.S. Military (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2014–16), vol. 2, 11–12.

Wood y Toppelberg, “The Persistence of Sexual Assault within the U.S. Military.”

Ibid.

Paul Cook et al., “2014 Service Academy Gender Relations Survey: Overview Report,” Report No. 2014-016 (Alexandria, VA: Defense Research, Surveys, and Statistics Center, Defense Manpower Data Center, 2015).

Wood y Toppelberg, “The Persistence of Sexual Assault within the U.S. Military.”

Hoover Green, “The Commander’s Dilemma.”

Hago referencia al comandante como “él” y a los combatientes como “ella” o “él” para reflejar el hecho de que en casi todas las organizaciones la gran mayoría de los comandantes son hombres, pero el género de los combatientes es más mezclado.

Scott Gates, “Recruitment and Allegiance: The Microfoundations of Rebellion,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 46, no. 1 (2002); Neil J. Mitchell, Agents of Atrocity: Leaders, Followers, and the Violation of Human Rights in Civil War (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004); Jeremy M. Weinstein, Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007); Christopher K. Butler, Tali Gluch, y Neil J. Mitchell, “Security Forces and Sexual Violence: A Cross-National Analysis of a Principal-Agent Argument,” Journal of Peace Research 44, no. 6 (2007); Amelia Hoover Green, “Repertoires of Violence against Non-combatants: The Role of Armed Group Institutions and Ideologies” (PhD dissertation, Yale University, 2011); Michele Leiby, “State-Perpetrated Wartime Sexual Violence in Latin America” (PhD dissertation, University of New Mexico, 2011); Devorah Manekin, “Waging War among Civilians: The Production and Restraint of Counterinsurgent Violence in the Second Intifada” (PhD dissertation, University of California Los Angeles, 2012); Wood, “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence”; Wood, “Conflict-Related Sexual Violence”; Francisco Gutiérrez Sanín y Elisabeth Jean Wood, “Ideology in Civil War: Instrumental Adoption and Beyond,” Journal of Peace Research 51, no. 2 (2014); Gerald Schneider, Lilli Banholzer, y Laura Albarracin, “Ordered Rape: A Principal-Agent Analysis of Wartime Sexual Violence in the DR Congo,” Violence against Women 21, no. 11 (2015).

Weinstein, Inside Rebellion.

Ver John Mueller, “The Banality of ‘Ethnic War,’” International Security 25, no. 1 (2000), sobre organizaciones que reclutan a partir de subculturas criminales.

Sobre la cohesión vertical, ver Guy L. Siebold, “The Essence of Military Group Cohesion,” Armed Forces & Society 33, no. 2 (2007); Robert J. MacCoun, Elizabeth Kier, y Aaron Belkin, “Does Social Cohesion Determine Motivation in Combat?,” Armed Forces & Society 32, no. 4 (2006); Leonard Wong, “Combat Motivation in Today’s Soldiers,” Armed Forces & Society 32, no. 4 (2006).

Herbert C. Kelman y V. Lee Hamilton, Crimes of Obedience: Toward a Social Psychology of Authority and Responsibility (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989).

Hoover Green, “Repertoires of Violence against Non-combatants”; Hoover Green, “The Commander’s Dilemma.” Por ejemplo, las fuerzas militares estatales con frecuencia buscan reclutar dentro de un amplio rango de subculturas con el fin de reconstruir sus normas y creencias hacia una identidad nacional en vez de étnica.

Francisco Gutiérrez Sanín y Antonio Giustozzi, “Networks and Armies: Structuring Rebellion in Colombia and Afghanistan,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 33, no. 9 (2010).

Wood, “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence”; Donna Winslow, “Rites of Passage and Group Bonding in the Canadian Airborne,” Armed Forces & Society 25, no. 3 (1999).

Christopher Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (New York: HarperCollins, 1992); Daniel Chirot and Clark McCauley, Why Not Kill Them All? The Logic and Prevention of Mass Political Murder (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006); Alexander Laban Hinton, Why Did They Kill? Cambodia in the Shadow of Genocide (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Hoover Green, “Repertoires of Violence against Non-combatants”; Janie L. Leatherman, Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2011); Kieran Mitton, “Irrational Actors and the Process of Brutalisation: Understanding Atrocity in the Sierra Leonean Conflict (1991–2002),” Civil Wars 14, no. 1 (2012).

Thomas Elbert et al., “Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in the Kivu Provinces of the Democratic Republic of Congo: Insights from Former Combatants,” Learning on Gender and Conflict in Africa (LOGiCA) Program (Washington, DC: World Bank, September 2013), 40–41. Sobre el “apetito de agresión”, ver Roland Weierstall et al., “The Thrill of Being Violent as an Antidote to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Rwandese Genocide Perpetrators,” European Journal of Psychotraumatology 2, no. 6345 (2011).

Para una tipología 2 × 2 de la socialización al interior de las organizaciones armadas, ver Wood y Toppelberg, “The Persistence of Sexual Assault within the U.S. Military.”

Jessica Stanton, Violence and Restraint in Civil War: Civilian Targeting in the Shadow of International Law (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016); Scott Straus, “Retreating from the Brink: Theorizing Mass Violence and the Dynamics of Restraint,” Perspectives on Politics 10, no. 2 (2012); Wood, “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence”; Gutiérrez Sanín y Wood, “Ideology in Civil War.” 36. Hoover Green, “The Commander’s Dilemma.”

Ibid.

Wood, “Conflict-Related Sexual Violence”; Sara Meger, Rape Loot Pillage: The Political Economy of Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

Julia Bleckner, “Understanding Individual Criminal Responsibility in Cases of ConflictRelated Sexual Violence: The ICTR, ICTY, and ICC” (unpublished paper, Yale University, 2017).

Richardot, “‘You Know What to Do with Them’”; Elisabeth Jean Wood y Julia Bleckner, “Conflict-Related Sexual Violence,” Armed Conflict Survey (2017). Otras formas de violencia sexual, incluyendo la violación de detenidos varones y golpizas a sus genitales, ocurrieron también con el conocimiento de los oficiales al mando. Wood y Bleckner, “Conflict-Related Sexual Violence,” 31.

Wood, “Rape during War Is Not Inevitable”; Wood, “Conflict-Related Sexual Violence.”

C. Sarah Soh, The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008); Chung Hyun-Kyung, “‘Your Comfort versus My Death’: Korean Comfort Women,” in Anne Llewellyn Barstow, ed., War’s Dirty Secret: Rape, Prostitution, and Other Crimes against Women (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press, 2000).

Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica, “¡Basta Ya! Colombia: Memorias de Guerra y Dignidad” (Bogotá: Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica, 2012).

Jeannie Annan et al., “Civil War, Reintegration, and Gender in Northern Uganda,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 55, no. 6 (2011); Sophie Kramer, “Forced Marriage and the Absence of Gang Rape: Explaining Sexual Violence by the Lord’s Resistance Army in Northern Uganda,” Journal of Politics & Society 23, no. 1 (2012).

Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI), “Islamic State (ISIS) Releases Pamphlet on Female Slaves” (December 3, 2014), translation of ISIS pamphlet “Questions and Answers on Taking Captives and Slaves”; en línea en http://www.memrijttm.org/islamicstate-isis-releases-pamphlet-on-female-slaves.html). Ver también Amnesty International, “Escape from Hell: Torture and Sexual Slavery in Islamic State Captivity in Iraq” (London: Amnesty International, 2014); en línea en https://www.amnesty.org.uk/files/escape_from_ hell_-_torture_and_sexual_slavery_in_islamic_state_captivity_in_iraq_-_english_2.pdf; Ariel I. Ahram, “Sexual Violence and the Making of Isis,” Survival 57, no. 3 (2015).

Mara Revkin y Elisabeth Jean Wood, “The Islamic State’s Pattern of Sexual Violence: Ideology and Institutions, Policies and Practices” (unpublished manuscript, Yale University, 2017).

Mitchell, Agents of Atrocity.

Butler, Gluch, and Mitchell, “Security Forces and Sexual Violence.”

Para otras tipologías de la violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra, ver Ruth Seifert, “The Second Front: The Logic of Sexual Violence in Wars,” Women’s Studies International Forum 19 (1996); Elvan Isikozlu and Ananda S. Millard, “Towards a Typology of Wartime Rape,” BICC Brief no. 43 (Bonn: Bonn International Center for Conversion, 2010); Leatherman, Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict; y Meger, Rape Loot Pillage; para tipologías de explicaciones de la violencia sexual durante la guerra, ver Donna Pankhurst, “Sexual Violence in War,” en Laura J. Shepherd, ed., Gender Matters in Global Politics: A Feminist Introduction to International Relations (London: Routledge, 2010); Kirby, “How Is Rape a Weapon of War?”; Inger Skjelsbaek, “Sexual Violence and War: Mapping Out a Complex Relationship,” European Journal of International Relations 7, no. 2 (2001); y Skjelsbaek, “The Elephant in the Room.”

Cohen, “Explaining Rape during Civil War”; Dara Kay Cohen, “Female Combatants and Violence in Armed Groups: Women and Wartime Rape in Sierra Leone,” World Politics 65 (2013); y Cohen, Rape during Civil War.

Eriksson Baaz y Stern, “Why Do Soldiers Rape?”; Eriksson Baaz y Stern, Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War?, 73–78.

Eriksson Baaz y Stern, “Why Do Soldiers Rape?”; Schneider, Banholzer, y Albarracin, “Ordered Rape,” 1355.

Jacqui True, The Political Economy of Violence against Women (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Meger, Rape Loot Pillage.

Boesten, “Analyzing Rape Regimes at the Interface of War and Peace in Peru”; Jelke Boesten, Sexual Violence during War and Peace: Gender, Power, and Post-conflict Justice in Peru (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).

Sobre la violación estratégica de las fuerzas estatales de Perú, ver también Michele Leiby, “Wartime Sexual Violence in Guatemala and Peru,” International Studies Quarterly 53, no. 2 (2009).

Weaver sugiere que la violación durante operaciones era una política de las fuerzas de EEUU, pero ofrece poca evidencia para considerarla una “política” de acuerdo con la definición dada aquí. Turse sugiere que en ocasiones la violación se utilizaba como táctica de interrogación. Turse, Kill Anything That Moves, 167.

Otra condición ocurre cuando la unidad es liderada por un comandante que no sigue órdenes y quien modela la violación (y la tolera). Este caso se entiende mejor como un caso donde el comandante en particular autoriza la violación como política en su propia unidad. Por ejemplo, ver Wood y Toppelberg, “The Persistence of Sexual Assault within the U.S. Military.”

Wood, “Conflict-Related Sexual Violence.” En contraste, otros investigadores colocan toda violencia sexual, en tiempos de paz y en tiempos de guerra, en un escalamiento lineal. Ver, p. ej., True, The Political Economy of Violence against Women; Sara E. Davies y Jacqui True, “Reframing Conflict-Related Sexual and Gender-Based Violence: Bringing Gender Analysis Back In,” Security Dialogue 46, no. 6 (2015); y Meger, Rape Loot Pillage. Para diferentes significados de “escalamiento lineal” ver, entre otros, Butler, Gluch, y Mitchell, “Security Forces and Sexual Violence”; Boesten, Sexual Violence during War and Peace; y Cynthia Cockburn, “The Continuum of Violence: A Gender Perspective on War and Peace,” en W. Giles and J. Hyndman, eds., Sites of Violence: Gender and Conflict Zones (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).

Mary Dietz, “Current Controversies in Feminist Theory,” Annual Review of Political Science 6 (2003); Gwen Hunnicutt, “Varieties of Patriarchy and Violence against Women: Resurrecting ‘Patriarchy’ as a Theoretical Tool,” Violence against Women (2009): 557–59; Vrushali Patil, “From Patriarchy to Intersectionality: A Transnational Feminist Assessment of How Far We’ve Really Come,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture & Society 38, no. 4 (2013); True, The Political Economy of Violence against Women, 131.

Kimberle Crenshaw, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color,” Stanford Law Review 43, no. 6 (1991); Nira YuvalDavis, “Intersectionality and Feminist Politics,” European Journal of Women’s Studies 13, no. 3 (2006); Ange-Marie Hancock, “When Multiplication Doesn’t Equal Quick Addition: Examining Intersectionality as a Research Paradigm,” Perspectives on Politics 5, no. 1 (2007); Sharon Krause, “Contested Questions, Current Trajectories,” Politics & Gender 7, no. 1 (2011); Sumi Cho, Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw, and Leslie McCall, “Toward a Field of Intersectionality Studies: Theory, Applications, and Praxis,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture & Society 38, no. 4 (2013).

Robert W. Connell y James W. Messerschmidt, “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept,” Gender & Society 19, no. 6 (2005), including on “protest masculinities,” 847; Paul Higate y John Hopton, “War, Militarism, and Masculinities,” Handbook of Studies on Men & Masculinities (2005).

Sjoberg, Women as Wartime Rapists; Meger, Rape, Loot, Pillage.

Ver Patil, “From Patriarchy to Intersectionality” para un resumen de la literatura relevante.

Cohen, “Explaining Rape during Civil War.”

Hoover Green, “Repertoires of Violence against Non-combatants”; Cohen, “Explaining Rape during Civil War”; Cohen, “Female Combatants and Violence in Armed Groups.”

Cohen, “Explaining Rape during Civil War”; Cohen, Rape during Civil War; Elisabeth Jean Wood, “Multiple Perpetrator Rape during War,” in Miranda Horvath and Jessica Woodhams, eds., Handbook on the Study of Multiple Perpetrator Rape: A Multidisciplinary Response to an International Problem (New York: Routledge, 2013).

Cohen, “Female Combatants and Violence in Armed Groups”; Sjoberg, Women as Wartime Rapists.

Wood y Toppelberg, “The Persistence of Sexual Assault within the U.S. Military.”

Luisa Maria Dietrich Ortega, “Looking beyond Violent Militarized Masculinities,” International Feminist Journal of Politics 14, no. 4 (2012); Maria Eriksson Baaz y Maria Stern, “Beyond Militarised Masculinity: The Case of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,” in Mats Utas y Maria Eriksson Baaz, eds., Beyond “Gender and Stir”: Reflections on Gender and SSR in the Aftermath of African Conflicts, Policy Dialogue no. 9 (Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute, 2012); Wood, “Conflict-Related Sexual Violence.”

Wood, “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence”; Hoover Green, “The Commander’s

Dilemma”. Esto contrasta con la literatura anterior que enfatizaba que una masculinidad “militarizada” era necesaria, universal y homogénea entre todas las organizaciones armadas, p. ej. Cynthia Enloe, Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Joshua S. Goldstein, War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Madeline Morris, “By Force of Arms: Rape, War, and Military Culture,” Duke Law Journal 45, no. 5 (1996).

Meger, Rape Loot Pillage, 151. Schneider, Banholzer, y Albarracin (“Ordered Rape”) concuerdan, argumentando que algunos (no todos) los comandantes de las organizaciones armadas en DRC ordenaron las violaciones.

Mark J Osiel, “Obeying Orders: Atrocity, Military Discipline, and the Law of War,” California Law Review (1998): 1038.

Richardot, “‘You Know What to Do with Them,’” 84.

Ibid., 86–87.

Marie Forestier, “‘You Want Freedom? This Is Your Freedom’: Rape as a Tactic of the Assad Regime,” Working Paper Series (London: LSE Centre for Women, Peace and Security, 2017).

UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Assessment Mission by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to Improve Human Rights, Accountability, Reconciliation and Capacity in South Sudan, Document no. A/HRC/31/49 (Geneva: UN Human Rights Council, 2016).

Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of Occupation, 1945–1949 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1995), 71.

Wood, “Variation in Sexual Violence during War.”

James Ron, “Savage Restraint: Israel, Palestine and the Dialectics of Legal Repression,” Social Problems 47, no. 4 (2000).

Esto podría estar ocurriendo en DRC, según Maria Eriksson Baaz (comunicación personal con la autora, 14 de junio de 2017).

Susana SáCouto y Katherine Cleary, “Importance of Effective Investigation of Sexual Violence and Gender-Based Crimes at the International Criminal Court,” American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law 17, no. 2 (2009).

Barbara Goy, Michelle Jarvis, y Giulia Pinzauti, “Contextualizing Sexual Violence and Linking It to Senior Officials: Modes of Liability,” in Serge Brammertz and Michelle Jarvis, eds., Prosecuting Conflict-Related Sexual Violence at the ICTY (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 232.

Laurel Baig, Michelle Jarvis, Elena Martin Salgado, y Giulia Pinzauti, “Contextualizing Sexual Violence: Selection of Crimes,” in Brammertz and Jarvis, eds., Prosecuting Conflict-Related Sexual Violence, 172–73, 217, citando a Wood, “Conflict-Related Sexual Violence.” Los autores también advierten a los fiscales que deben contrarrestar la percepción de la violación tiene que ser masiva para ser judicializada. Baig et al., “Contextualizing Sexual Violence,” 183, 202; Ver también Agirre Aranburu, “Sexual Violence beyond Reasonable Doubt.”

“Rule 153, Command Responsibility for Failure to Prevent, Repress or Report War Crimes” (Geneva: ICRC, Customary IHL Database); en línea en https://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/ eng/docs/v1_cha_chapter43_rule153. Por supuesto que la respuesta común de los militares y los líderes políticos ante acusaciones de violaciones estratégicas por parte de sus fuerzas es decir que las tropas no estaban bajo su control, pero esta respuesta puede ser rebatida con otros indicadores de control: ver Wood, “Rape During War Is Not Inevitable.”

Patricia Sellers, “Sexual Violence and Commanders’ Responsibilities during Conflict,” Just Security (2016).

Baig et al., “Contextualizing Sexual Violence,” 179, 182.

Goy, Jarvis, and Pinzauti, “Contextualizing Sexual Violence and Linking It to Senior Officials,” 229.

Ibid., 245–46.

Ibid., 258.

Office of the Prosecutor, International Criminal Court, “Policy Paper on Sexual and Gender Based Crimes” (The Hague: International Criminal Court, June 2014), 32, para. 81.

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