Fact-checking: ¿una práctica reciente en Portugal? Análisis de percepción de la audiencia
Barra lateral del artículo
Contenido principal del artículo
El fact-checking es una práctica periodística muy reciente en Portugal. Ningún estudio hasta ahora ha buscado comprender la actitud del público hacia este nuevo fenómeno. Este estudio exploratorio, instrumentado mediante cuestionario online (N = 618), tuvo como objetivo investigar la actitud y la percepción de los portugueses en relación con el fact-checking, analizando el efecto de las prácticas de consumo de información, los aspectos sociodemográficos y la orientación política de los individuos. Nuestros resultados muestran que la mayoría está a favor del fact-checking y conoce la práctica. Sin embargo, los niveles de familiaridad son bajos y por debajo de las expectativas, ya que el 40 % de los encuestados no conocen este género periodístico. Además, encontramos un importante escepticismo por parte de los participantes con respecto a la ética de los verificadores. Corroborando otros estudios, los jóvenes y los más educados son más favorables y están más familiarizados con el fact-checking. A diferencia de otros estudios, nuestros resultados no muestran ningún efecto de la orientación política e ideológica sobre los niveles de aceptación y familiaridad. Este estudio plantea varios desafíos relevantes, demostrando que las personas pueden no estar tan familiarizadas con el fact-checking como cabría esperar y que existe una gran desconfianza en la precisión e imparcialidad de los fact-checkers, lo que puede ser un obstáculo para la corrección de desinformación.
Descargas
Amazeen, M. A. (2013). Making a difference: A critical assessment of fact-checking in 2012. New America Foundation Media Policy Initiative Research Paper. https://www.newamerica.org/new-america/making-a-difference/
Amazeen, M. A. (2019). Practitioner perceptions: Critical junctures and the global emergence and challenges of fact-checking. International Communication Gazette, 81(6-8), 541-561. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048518817674
Amazeen, M. A., & Bucy, E. P. (2019). Conferring resistance to digital disinformation: The inoculating influence of procedural news knowledge. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 63(3), 415–432. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2019.1653101
Amazeen, M. A., Vargo, C. J., & Hopp, T. (2019). Reinforcing attitudes in a gatewatching news era: Individual- level antecedents to sharing fact-checks on social media. Communication Monographs, 86(1), 112-132. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2018.1521984
Baptista, J. P., & Gradim, A. (2020). Online disinformation on Facebook: The spread of fake news during the Portuguese 2019 election. Journal of contemporary European studies, 30(2), 297-312. https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2020.1843415
Baptista, J. P., Correia, E., Gradim, A., & Piñeiro-Naval, V. (2021a). The influence of political ideology on fake news belief: The Portuguese case. Publications, 9(2), 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9020023
Baptista, J. P., Correia, E., Gradim, A., & Piñeiro-Naval, V. (2021b). Partidismo:¿ el verdadero aliado de las fake news? Un análisis comparativo del efecto sobre la creencia y la divulgación. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, (79), 23-47. https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2021-1509
Baptista, J. P., Correia, E., Gradim, A., & Piñeiro-Naval, V. (2021c). A ciência cognitiva e a crença em fake news: um estudo exploratório. Eikon. Journal of Semiotics and Culture, (9). https://redib.org/Record/oai_articulo3323206-a-ci%C3%AAncia-cognitiva-e-a-cren%C3%A7a-em-fake-news-um-estudo-explorat%C3%B3rio
Baptista, J. P., & Loureiro, M. (2018). Ideologia Política Esquerda-Direita–Estudo Exploratório do Eleitorado Português. Interações: Sociedade e as novas modernidades, (35), 57-80. https://doi.org/10.31211/interacoes.n35.2018.a3
Barnidge, M., Gunther, A. C., Kim, J., Hong, Y., Perryman, M., Tay, S. K., & Knisely, S. (2020). Politically motivated selective exposure and perceived media bias. Communication Research, 47(1), 82–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217713066
Barreto, D. (9 de fevereiro de 2021). “Médicos pela Verdade” suspendem a atividade online. Sábado. https://www.sabado.pt/portugal/detalhe/medicos-pela-verdade- suspendem-a-atividade-online
Baumann, F., Lorenz-Spreen, P., Sokolov, I. M., & Starnini, M. (2020). Modeling echo chambers and polarization dynamics in social networks. Physical Review Letters, 124(4), 48301. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.124.048301
Bovet, A., & Makse, H. A. (2019). Influence of fake news in Twitter during the 2016 us presidential election. Nature Communications, 10(7). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07761-2
Caeiro, M. (2020). Media and populism: In search of the roots of the exceptionality of the portuguese case. Relaçõ es Internacionais special issue, 101-114. https://ipri.unl.pt/index.php/pt/publicacoes/revista-r-i/arquivo-de-revista-r-i/3939-relacoes-internacionais-special-issue-2020
Canavilhas, J., & Ferrari, P. (2018). Fact-checking: o jornalismo regressa às origens. In D. Buitoni (Ed.), Jornalismo Em Tempo de Transformação: Desafios de Produção e de Ação (pp. 30–49). Editorial Sulina.
Cardoso, G., Baldi, V., Quintanilha, T., Paisana, M. (2020). Agências de notícias e fact-checking. Meta-análise de estratégias de integração da verificação de factos no jornalismo de agência. OberCom.
Cardoso, G., Moreno, J., Narciso, I., & Palma, N. (2019). Social Media disinformation in the pre-electoral period in Portugal. iscte.
Carnahan, D., & Bergan, D. E. (2021). Correcting the Misinformed: The Effectiveness of Fact-checking Messages in Changing False Beliefs. Political Communication, 39(2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2021.1963358
Cazetta, J. P. (2018). O Fact-Checking Luso-Brasileiro: Uma Análise dos Fact-Checkings credenciados no Brasil e em Portugal pelo International Fact-Checking Network [Dissertação de mestrado, Universidade do Porto]. https://hdl.handle.net/10216/116321
Cobb, M. D., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2013). Beliefs don’t always persevere: How political figures are punished when positive information about them is discredited. Political Psychology, 34(3), 307–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00935.x
De keersmaecker, J., & Roets, A. (2017). ‘Fake news’: Incorrect, but hard to correct. The role of cognitive ability on the impact of false information on social impressions. Intelligence, 65, 107-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2017.10.005
Dewey, C. (17 de novembro de 2016). Facebook fake-news writer: ‘I think Donald Trump is in the White House because of me.’ The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/11/17/facebook-fake-news-writer-i-think-donald-trump-is-in-the-white-house-because-of-me/
Digital News Report. (2018). Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2018 Portugal. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism – OberCom. https://obercom.pt/wp- content/uploads/2018/09/DNR_PT_2018.pdf
Digital News Report. (2020). Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2020 Portugal. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism – OberCom. https://obercom.pt/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/DNR_PT_2020_19Jun.pdf
Digital News Report. (2021). Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2021 Portugal. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism – OberCom. https://obercom.pt/wp- content/uploads/2021/06/DNR_PT_2021_final.pdf
Ditto, P. H., Liu, B. S., Clark, C. J., Wojcik, S. P., Chen, E. E., Grady, R. H., Celniker, J. B., & Zinger, J. F. (2019). At least bias is bipartisan: A meta-analytic comparison of partisan bias in liberals and conservatives. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(2), 273–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617746796
Elizabeth, J. (20 de maio de 2014). Who are you calling a fact-checker?. American Press Institute. https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/fact-checking-project/fact-checker-definition/
Faragó, L, Kende, A., & Krekó, P. (2019). We only believe in news that we doctored ourselves: The connection between partisanship and political fake news. Social Psychology, 51(2), 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000391
Firmino, T., & Maia, A. (21 de outubro de 2020). Sete médicos têm processos disciplinares por veicularem desinformaçã o sobre covid-19. Público. https://www.publico.pt/2020/10/21/ciencia/noticia/abertos-processos-disciplinares-sete- medicos-veiculam-desinformacao-covid19-1935998
Fischer, P., Jonas, E., Frey, D., & Schulz-Hardt, S. (2005). Selective exposure to information: The impact of information limits. European Journal of social psychology, 35(4), 469-492. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.264
Flynn, D. J., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2017). The nature and origins of misperceptions: Understanding false and unsupported beliefs about politics. Political Psychology, 38, 127-150. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12394
Freire, A. (2006). Esquerda e Direita na Política Europeia: Portugal, Espanha e Grécia em Perspectiva Comparada. Imprensa de Ciências Sociais.
Freire, A. (2009). A esquerda europeia ante os dilemas da imigraçã o. Sociologia: Revista Da Faculdade De Letras Da Universidade Do Porto, 19, 255–279. https://ojs.letras.up.pt/index.php/Sociologia/article/view/2338
Fridkin, K., Kenney, P. J., & Wintersieck, A. (2015). Liar, liar, pants on fire: How fact- checking influences citizens’ reactions to negative advertising. Political Communication, 32(1), 127–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2014.914613
Graves, L. (2018). Boundaries not drawn: Mapping the institutional roots of the global fact-checking movement. Journalism Studies, 19(5), 613-631. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2016.1196602
Graves, L., & Cherubini, F. (2016). The rise of fact-checking sites in Europe. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism.
Graves, L., & Glaisyer, T. (2012). The fact-checking universe in Spring 2012: An overview. New America Foundation.
Graves, L., & Konieczna, M. (2015). Qualitative political communication sharing the news: Journalistic collaboration as field repair. International Journal of Communication, 9, 19. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/3381
Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B., & Lazer, D. (2019). Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 u.s. presidential election. Science, 363(6425), 374-378. 10.1126/science.aau2706
Guess, A., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2018). Selective exposure to misinformation: Evidence from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 us presidential campaign. European Research Council, 9(3), 1-14. http://www.ask-force.org/web/Fundamentalists/Guess-Selective-Exposure-to-Misinformation-Evidence-Presidential-Campaign-2018.pdf
Guess, A., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. (2019). Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau4586
Hameleers, M., & van der Meer, T. G. (2019). Misinformation and polarization in a high-choice media environment: How effective are political fact-checkers? Communication Research, 47(2), 227– 250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218819671
Hannak, A., Margolin, D., Keegan, B., & Weber, I. (1-4 de junho de 2014). Get back! You don’t know me like that: The social mediation of fact checking interventions in twitter conversations. Proceedings of the International aaai Conference on Web and Social Media, Michigan, usa. https://www.aaai.org/Library/ICWSM/icwsm14contents.php
Harsin, J. (2018). Post-truth and critical communication studies. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.757
Humprecht, E. (2020). How Do They Debunk “Fake News”? A Cross-National Comparison of Transparency in Fact Checks. Digital Journalism, 8(3), 310–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2019.1691031
Jarman, J. W. (2016). Influence of political affiliation and criticism on the effectiveness of political fact-checking. Communication Research Reports, 33(1), 9-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2015.1117436
Liu, Y. I., Shen, F., Eveland, W. P., & Dylko, I. (2013). The impact of news use and news content characteristics on political knowledge and participation. Mass Communication and Society, 16(5), 713-737. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2013.778285
Lyons, B., Mérola, V., Reifler, J., & Stoeckel, F. (2020). How politics shape views toward fact-checking: Evidence from six European countries. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 25(3), 469-492. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161220921732
Magalhães, P. (1 de junho de 2019). Populismo em Portugal: um gigante adormecido. Expresso. https://expresso.pt/sondagens/2019-06-01-Populismo-em-Portugal-um-gigante-adormecido
Mancosu, M., Vassallo, S., & Vezzoni, C. (2017). Believing in Conspiracy Theories: Evidence from an Exploratory Analysis of Italian Survey Data. South European Society and Politics, 22(3), 327–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/13608746.2017.1359894
Mapping Media Freedom. (10 de janeiro de 2021). Portugal: sic journalists receive torrent of abuse and threats online after Chega investigation. Mapping Media Freedom. https://mappingmediafreedom.ushahidi.io/posts/23757
McIntyre, L. (2018). Post-truth. MIt Press.
Mourão, R. R., & Robertson, C. T. (2019). Fake News as Discursive Integration: An Analysis of Sites That Publish False, Misleading, Hyperpartisan and Sensational Information. Journalism Studies, 20(14), 2077–2095. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2019.1566871
Nyhan, B., Reifler, J., & Ubel, P. A. (2013). The hazards of correcting myths about health care reform. Medical care, 51(2), 127-132. 10.1097/MLR.0b013e318279486b
Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2015). Estimating fact-checking’s effects. American Press Institute. https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Estimating-Fact-Checkings-Effect.pdf
Osmundsen, M., Bor, A., Vahlstrup, P., Bechmann, A., & Petersen, M. (2021). Partisan Polarization Is the Primary Psychological Motivation behind Political Fake News Sharing on Twitter. American Political Science Review, 115(3), 999-1015. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000290
Paisana, M., Pinto-Martinho, A., & Cardoso, G. (2020). Trust and fake news: Exploratory analysis of the impact of news literacy on the relationship with news content in Portugal. Communication and Society, 33(2), 105–117. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.33.2.105-117
Parkinson, H. J. (14 de novembro de 2016). Click and elect: How fake news helped Donald Trump win a real election. The Guardian, 14 november. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/nov/14/fake-news-donald-trump- election-alt-right-social-media-tech-companies
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Research note: Examining false beliefs about voter fraud in the wake of the 2020 Presidential Election. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-51
Pennycook, G, Cannon, T. D., & Rand, D. G. (2018). Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(12), 1865-1880. 10.1037/xge0000465
Peterson, E., & Kagalwala, A. (2021). When unfamiliarity breeds contempt: How partisan selective exposure sustains oppositional media hostility. American Political Science Review, 115(2), 585-598. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420001124
Pop, M.-I., & Ene, I. (21-22 de março de 2019). Influence of the educational level on the spreading of Fake News regarding the energy field in the online environment. Proceedings of the International Conference on Business Excellence, Bucharest, Romania. https://doi.org/10.2478/picbe-2019-0097
Read, M. (9 de novembro de 2016). Donald Trump won because of Facebook. New York Magazine. http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2016/11/donald-trump-won- because-of-facebook.html
Reuter, C., Hartwig, K., Kirchner, J., & Schlegel, N. (24-27 de fevereiro de 2019). Fake news perception in Germany: A representative study of people’s attitudes and approaches to counteract disinformation. 14th International Conference on Wirtschaftsinformatik, Siegen, Germany. http://www.peasec.de/paper/2019/2019_ReuterHartwigKirchnerSchlegel_FakeNewsPerceptionGermany_WI.pdf
Robertson, C. T., Mourão, R. R., & Thorson, E. (2020). Who uses fact-checking sites? The impact of demographics, political antecedents, and media use on fact-checking site awareness, attitudes, and behavior. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 25(2), 217-237. https://doi.org/10.1177/19401612198980
Rollwage, M., Dolan, R. J., & Fleming, S. M. (2018). Metacognitive Failure as a Feature of Those Holding Radical Beliefs. Current Biology, 28(24), 4014-4021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.10.053
Salgado, S., & Bobba, G. (2019). News on Events and Social Media: A Comparative Analysis of Facebook Users’ Reactions. Journalism Studies, 20(15), 2258–2276. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2019.1586566
Schulz, A., Wirth, W., & Müller, P. (2020). We are the people and you are fake news: A social identity approach to populist citizens’ false consensus and hostile media perceptions. Communication Research, 47(2), 201-226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218794854
Serrano, E. (2020). Populismo em Portugal. Media and Jornalismo, 20(37), 221–239. https://doi.org/10.14195/2183-5462_37_12
Shehata, A., & Strömbäck, J. (2021). Learning political news from social media: Network media logic and current affairs news learning in a high-choice media environment. Communication Research, 48(1), 125-147. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217749354
Shin, J., & Thorson, K. (2017). Partisan selective sharing: The biased diffusion of fact- checking messages on social media. Journal of Communication, 67(2), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12284
Sinclair, A. H., Stanley, M. L., & Seli, P. (2020). Closed-minded cognition: Right-wing authoritarianism is negatively related to belief updating following prediction error. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 27(6), 1348-1361. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-020-01767-y
Stencel, M. (11 de junho de 2019). Number of fact-checking outlets surges to 188 in more than 60 countries. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/news-item/number-of-fact-checking-outlets-surges-to-188-in-more-than-60-countries/
Stier, S., Kirkizh, N., Froio, C., & Schroeder, R. (2020). Populist attitudes and selective exposure to online news: A cross-country analysis combining web tracking and surveys. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 25(3), 426-446. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161220907018
Stroud, N. J., Muddiman, A., & Lee, J. K. (2014). Seeing media as group members: An evaluation of partisan bias perceptions. Journal of Communication, 64(5), 874-894. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12110
Tardáguila, C. (25 de outubro de 2019). This Portuguese fact-checking platform reached its break-even point in less than a year. Poynter. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/this-portuguese-fact-checking-platform-reached-its-break-even-point-in-less-than-a-year/
Thorson, E. (2016). Belief echoes: The persistent effects of corrected misinformation. Political Communication, 33(3), 460–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2015.1102187
Tonković, M., Dumančić, F., Jelić, M., & Čorkalo Biruški, D. (2021). Who Believes in covid-19 Conspiracy Theories in Croatia? Prevalence and Predictors of Conspiracy Beliefs. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 643568. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643568
Trielli, D., & Diakopoulos, N. (2020). Partisan search behavior and Google results in the 2018 us midterm elections. Information, Communication & Society, 25, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1764605
Trilling, D., Tolochko, P., & Burscher, B. (2016). From Newsworthiness to Shareworthiness: How to Predict News Sharing Based on Article Characteristics. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 94(1), 38–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699016654682
Tsfati, Y., Boomgaarden, H. G., Strömbäck, J., Vliegenthart, R., Damstra, A., & Lindgren, E. (2020). Causes and consequences of mainstream media dissemination of fake news: Literature review and synthesis. Annals of the International Communication Association, 44(2), 157–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2020.1759443
Vegetti, F., & Mancosu, M. (2020). The impact of political sophistication and motivated reasoning on misinformation. Political Communication, 37(5), 678–695. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1744778
Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146-1151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559
Walter, N., Cohen, J., Holbert, R. L., & Morag, Y. (2020). Fact-checking: A meta-analysis of what works and for whom. Political Communication, 37(3), 350-375. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1668894
Young, D. G., Jamieson, K. H., Poulsen, S., & Goldring, A. (2018). Fact-checking effectiveness as a function of format and tone: Evaluating FactCheck.org and FlackCheck. org. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 95(1), 49-75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699017710453
Zimmer, F., Scheibe, K., Stock, M., & Stock, W. G. (3-6 de janeiro de 2019). Echo chambers and filter bubbles of fake news in social media. Man-made or produced by algorithms. 8th Annual Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences & Education Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii. https://huichawaii.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Zimmer-Franziska-2019-AHSE-HUIC.pdf
Zimmermann, F., & Kohring, M. (2020). Mistrust, disinforming news, and vote choice: A panel survey on the origins and consequences of believing disinformation in the 2017 German parliamentary election. Political Communication, 37(2), 215-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1686095
Detalles del artículo

Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivadas 4.0.